________ is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans, proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. Halleys comet provides an extreme example of this; the explanation was formulated in the late 1600s, and the observable outcome was predicted for six decades later. e. none of the above. Conduct a critical experiment. e. a and c, In the case study of head football coach Tom Martinez, Coach Martinez dealt with the area of aggressive play by In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the ________ include food, water, and shelter. To put it more generally, to say that an explanation or an outcome is unfalsifiable is to say that any observation at all is consistent with the explanation. Clearly, the plumber explanation has a much lower prior probability than does the affair explanation. Which of the following psychologists was a behaviorist? c. social learning theory WebWhich of the following is an explanatory hypothesis? If a researcher uses the same experimental setup as another study to collect data, but uses different research subjects, it is considered. D. It excludes the presumption of For a fullerand fascinatingaccount of Halleys reasoning, see Ronald Giere. Periers barometer reads 30 inches at 0 feet, 28.7 inches at 1,300 feet, 28.2 inches at 1,800 feet, 27.2 inches at 2,800 feet, 26.2 inches at 3,800 feet, and 25.2 inches at 4,800 feet. An hypothesis is an idea that gives a tentative or temporary explanation to a phenomena. Simplicity contributes to epistemic probability, so ask whether the explanation is sufficiently simple. WebIntrospection refers to a process by which someone examines ________ as objectively as possible. Observation of one or only a few instances of a phenomenon. Suppose the prior probability that the butler did it was .10, likewise for the chambermaid. Select the correctly ordered list of psychological theorists, with the earliest theorist listed first. The second part of the total evidence condition focuses on the probability of the explanation. I recently organized a small test of this hypothesis. Suppose Halley had decided to look for confirmation of Newtons celestial mechanics by studying the sun rather than comets and, based on Newton, had confidently predicted that the sun would rise the next day. It describes why the individual is having problems. First: make observations; Last: Interpret data. d. Aggression facilitates performance only in team-sport athletes. Could you find out for me which five days that man is on the road? For example, our hypothesis in this case could be that the toast didn't toast because the electrical outlet is broken. The lad said that Suzy and the hired man were up in the hayloftthat Suzy had her dress up and the hired man had lowered his trousers. Thanks for the example to W. V. Quine and J.S. 16. A friend told me that Thai food is especially effective for those who are on a diet. But they differ from inductive generalizations in an important way. WebThe hypothesis is consistent with new data and investigations used to test its predictions. Are the outcomes such that they would falsify alternative explanations? If your hypothesis is "Echinacea reduces the duration and severity of the symptoms of the common cold," what is your null hypothesis? It includes the presumption of causation. b. When an explanation already exists, the arguer is free to respond in, for example, the case of the student pilots performance, OK, but this outcome is explained both by the efficacy of punishment and by the normal return to the current mean after an aberrant performance. But now it violates the second part of the total evidence condition as well! a. setting up specific guidelines distinguishing assertive play from inappropriate aggressive play WebWhich of the following statements is true of an explanatory hypothesis? B. My iPhone will run out of power within the next 12 hours. A general explanation that makes sense will typically lend itself to observable outcomes that can be graphed smoothly; and the simpler theory is more likely to eventually be buttressed by an adequate conceptual framework. Also termed the data, the prediction, or the facts. This can be a useful standard, but remember that surprise is a psychological conditionthus, strictly speaking, it is an indicator of low subjective, rather than epistemic, probability. In these cases it is better to say that you simply cannot decide, especially if the argument has not ruled out coincidence or deception as alternative explanations. e. as a linear function, The general aggression model proposes that the probability of aggression increases because of Meteorites provide yet another example. Some explanations will eventually measure up to the standards of good reasoning; that is no reason to eliminate the standards. Step 2. Lack suggested that a finch species alone on an island evolved an intermediate beak for eating seeds of various sizes. Some writers refer to this as the surprise criterion; it tests to see if you would be surprised by the outcome were you not to assume the explanation. The leading alternative explanation is that the manager has succeeded by sheer luck. It is easy to invent a convenient explanation for data you already have, but then to disregard failure to fully satisfy the total evidence condition. Then it is an explanatory argument. Not too badly, if we compare the frequencies of each. 4,38,916,2732,. Suppose I am encouraging you in your fledgling acting career and argue, You are so talented that all the critics who dont praise you are just jealous. The only difference is that Geller claims that he is not using deception. The independent variable is manipulated to cause-effect on the dependent variable and the dependent variable is measured to examine the effect we know that, option c. An increase in fam. It includes the presumption of causation. People in the South tend to rate the President more favorably than do people in the North Real estate investment trusts (REITs) experienced a record level of profitability in 2004. b. fans become more aggressive after watching violent contact sports Aggression has been defined as which of the following? William James was the ________. Is the if-clause intended to provide a better causal understanding of the then-clause? For exactly the same reason, we can hardly consider astrology to be supported when someone finds that the days horoscope has some truth in it; horoscopes are worded so vaguely that there are almost always events that can be interpreted as making them true. a. physically harming another individual In this statement Stern clearly indicated that _________ morality would not be accepted or tolerated. The explanation here is The gods are powerful and the observable outcome is Many who worship the gods have escaped from shipwrecks. causation. Ask whether an outcome rules out the leading alternative explanations. . a. fans become less aggressive after watching a sporting event An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income spent on housing. c. with the intent to harm psychologically. Two kinds of theories have been proposed. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation . e. all of the above. And in the larger world, organisms themselves are organized into many levels: populations, communities, and ecosystems within the biosphere. a. parents Pascal, due to his own bad health, persuaded his brother-in-law, Perier, to carry a crude barometer up the Puy-de-Dome in the south of France, taking measurements as he went. She must be a good driver, since she usually gets where shes going without running into anybody. As with determining the improbability of the outcome, there is no formula for determining the probability of the explanation. Wilson Bryan Key, whose most famous book was titled Subliminal Seduction, has argued that Madison Avenue strategically permeates its advertisements with camouflaged sexual images that are invisible unless you look very hard for them. Before making any judgment about the outcome, you should determine these two things: But sometimes the more probable explanation does not occur to uswe need more imagination or, perhaps, a better education. The philosopher Francis Bacon wrote four centuries ago of this experience: When they showed him hanging in a temple a picture of those who had paid their vows as having escaped shipwreck, and would have him say whether he did not now acknowledge the power of the gods, Aye, asked he again, but where are they painted that were drowned after their vows?. (In the spring of 1983, the topographical feature was officially named Pointe Bernard Shaw). For general explanations, the simplest one normally predicts the smoothest curve. The explanationthat he was a Marine sergeantcomes next. Punishing student pilots when they perform poorly is followed by improved performance more often than rewarding them when they perform well. This tentative explanation can either be proved or disproved by carrying out tests or experiments. In another type of distinction, some explanatory arguments are general, given that they have application to a wide range of possible observable outcomes; others are singular, in that they apply only to a specific outcome. A Guide to Good Reasoning: Cultivating Intellectual Virtues by David Carl Wilson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Its a favorite of macabre schoolchildren. This is an example of. After one of our couple friends started going to a fertility clinic, they just relaxed and stopped consciously trying to conceive. Like their close cousins, inductive generalizations, explanatory arguments aim to expand our knowledge. Where in the tropics could an English army doctor have seen much hardship and got his arm wounded? There are still people who, remarkably, claim that all of the evidence for the Holocaust is better explained as a hoax. During an episode of wheezing, they found that the vocal cords, which are located in the airway leading to the lungs, formed almost a complete barricade across the passage. But if Halley was right about Newtons views, there would be detectable regularitiescertain comets would be found to follow fixed elliptical orbits around the sun. d. a and b. e. a and c. b. in the quest of some nonaggressive goal. WebA hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. There we have the marine. c. athletes have higher moral development than nonathletes Write a paragraph explaining your point of view. Deduce what? said he, petulantly. Butterfingers, of course. Answer: 16: An hours sleuthing eliminated the plants inventory, machinery, welding operations, painting procedures and conveyor system as possible sources of the dent. How often do people leave water spraying everywhere rather than simply turning it off? William James was the ________. Also called a theoretical argument, inference to the best explanation, hypothetico-deductive argument, transcendental argument, or diagnostic argument. Fairly strong. Due to this defect, it took an especially rich array of observable outcomes and an especially compelling theoretical simplicity for it to gain rational acceptance. Roughly, since we are not allowing for the cost of commissions, for dividend income, and the like. Further, we have a conceptual framework for Buffets skillthe causal mechanism makes sensefor his strategies have been widely publicized, and the small handful of others who have had the discipline to follow them have also succeeded over the long run. Even eliminating four violent deaths (all men, two of them murders), the 53 percent death rate for men far exceeded the 29 percent rate for women. b. violence is modeled by young amateur hockey players This argument would have the same form as the first one, differing only in the nature of the observable outcome. The Total Evidence Condition for Explanatory Arguments. It is freeloading; so it deserves no credit when the outcome comes true. The first premise states that the theory, or the explanation, really does enable you to predict the facts, or the observable outcome. All of these. It makes no statement with respect to causation. According to William James, the purpose of psychology was to ________. Young women purchase fewer meats than women who are 35 years of age or older. The wife didnt tell her husband about the plumber; how often does someone suppress the truth when it would relieve the suspicions of a loved one? B. Although police contended that the image was caused by light reflecting from the window of a neighboring house, the onlookers believed that it was a message from God. Ann Arbor News. Theories are hypotheses that have been proved. And, finally, you can ask if the explanation is sufficiently simple. Applying your knowledge of the scientific method, which of the following BEST explains the correct contrast between a hypothesis and theory? Organisms can grow and develop, and they carry information relating to these and other processes that they can pass on to offspring. A form that cannot pull any of the load in a deductive argument may nevertheless pull a share of the load in an inductive one. Average people will harm others if told to do so by an authority figure. Here is one of the classic exchanges:[4], Dear Abby: Im a traveling man whos on the road five days a week. c. Use officials who do not tolerate aggression of any kind on the field. Here is one good way of clarifying it: From a logical point of view, the chronological relationship between the two does not matter. Statistics show that almost half of those who win baseballs Rookie of the Year honor slump to a worse performance in their second year. Ask whether an explanation for the outcome already exists. That rock just smells like Mars, says Robert Pepin of the University of Minnesota. The observable outcomealso termed the data, the prediction, or the factsfollows from the explanation and can in a certain way, at a certain time, and under certain conditions, be seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or touched. When was psychology accepted as an academic discipline? WebTranscribed image text: www.bbt.com Our Time.com Cesearch Foundations, Process, and Ethics Savod Which of the following is an explanatory hypothesis? . What is meant by the phrase "hierarchical organization of life"? Ideally, the explanation contains a cohesive and cogent understanding of the origins of the problems, the conditions that perpetuate them, the obstacles interfering with their solution, and the resources available to address them. In science, theories tend to be ___________ than hypotheses. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. e. Raise the level of coaching, with an emphasis on fair play, especially with younger athletes. So the outcome probably would be true even if the gods explanation were false, and the argument is logically extremely weak. Together, choices B and C combine to describe what is meant by the phrase "hierarchical organization of life.". have been. Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. Competition promotes specialization, but so would food differences; so if competition were the main cause then I wouldnt expect to find food differences. Singular explanationan explanation that is designed to apply only to a single thing or event. Web1) Direct observation of phenomena, empirically testable hypotheses, and the ability to rule out rival hypotheses are all essential tenets of the ________. A theory predicts events in a broad, general context; a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances. UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE. So an argument of this sort is probably just a logical mistake, not an explanatory argument. Galileo, Torricellis contemporary, attempted to test this by carrying a crude barometer to the top of a tall building, but the difference in the barometric reading between the base and the top of the building was negligible. Circles that had only later begun to appear elsewhere, they suggested, were created by copycats. -Easier to disprove. An even subtler example can be found in academic discussions of the theory that punishment motivates learning better than does reward. Hypotheses are guesses; theories are correct answers. Explanation: the meteorite came from Mars. d. all of the above Part Four: Evaluating the Truth of the Premises. She is a ________. d. a and c Explanatory arguments are probably the most fundamental and frequently used of all arguments, both in science and in everyday life. When established scientists reject offbeat theories, defenders of such views love to cite these cases. Working-class individuals are more often involved in aggressive spectator actions. Who was the first person referred to as a psychologist? a. There are two types of hypothesis. Theories are hypotheses that have been proved. For instance, of 15 Donner Party members who attempted to snowshoe out in late December, all five women survived while eight of the ten men died. . Sample exercise. This point can be broadened: vague statements, in general, are more likely to be true than precise ones. This applies to both singular and general explanations. By using the control group, the alternative is ruled out that the effect is somehow induced by the test itself. Dear Papa Bear: Its just a wild guess, but I think somebodys been sleeping in your bed. Another example is the pronouncement of Romans 8:28 that all things work together for good for those that love God. Some Christians will take any outcome at all to be, in some sense or other, good and thus to be evidence for the truth of this saying. These were huge, precise patterns of bent stalks of wheat, corn, and barley that lent themselves to spectacular aerial photographs. c. when participants perceive they are the recipients of poor officiating This disregard for weather extended even to the pouring of concrete. Describes knowledge that is based on experience and observations that are rational, testable, and repeatable. Which of the following statements is CORRECT? Proponents of the paranormal seized on them as new evidence of visitations from other galaxies; said one Patrick Delgado, author of several profitable books on the subject: No human being could have done this. (If necessary, review Section 4.4.4.4.4.4.) 1. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. 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